Human Trafficking

Problems of Human Security and Human Trafficking in Russia

By Yakov Gillinsky

“ Veneratio vitae.”

A. Schweitzer

Introduction

Human life is the highest, the absolute value. It is a pity, but in our contemporary world human life is increasingly at risk. In this respect the circumstance that Ulrich Beck thinks our contemporary society of as “risk-society” comes not really as a surprise (Beck, 1992). Obviously, human security has become a very actual and important problem. The topics that are to be discussed in this paper are: the general situation in contemporary Russia; inherent risks in contemporary Russia; human trafficking in Russia. Although the nature of each of the three topics is different, they altogether interact one with each other.

General situation in contemporary Russia

Russia, or the Russian Federation (RF), came into existence in 1991after the breakdown of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The Russian Federation is over 17-million square kilometers in size (greater than 6.5-million square miles). Russia suffers heavily depopulation; the population of Russia decreased from 148.7 million people in 1992 to 142.8 million people in 2004. Seventy-eight percent of the population live in the European part of the country and 22 percent in the Asiatic region (west Siberia, east Siberia and the Russian Far East). The population consists of 47 percent men and 53 percent women. 73 percent of the people were living in urban areas and 27 percent in rural areas (Vishnevski, 2002: 14, 20).

Obviously the communist regime was absolutely terrible. As a result of the unique experiment that consisted of the establishment of a social utopia (the slogan on the gate of the Solovki camp of GULAG read: “Happiness for Everyone through Violence”), the country was thrown onto the path of civilization.

Gorbachev’s “Perestroika” has been a necessary attempt to save the power structures by means of reform. A similar attempt was made by Khrushchev (the “Thaw”). However, every attempt made in order to reform the country finished with the political death of its propagators and was followed by “Stagnation” or “Reaction”… With all due credit to Gorbachev, his reforms turned out to be the most radical reforms (freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the multi-party system, the right to hold private property, the lifting of the Iron Curtain, the release of the states that have been formally occupied by Stalin – Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, etc.). However these reforms were not completely brought off. May be it is not Gorbatchev’s guilt but his misfortune.

The disintegration of production and economy continued to develop; power was brought back to the ruling nomenclature (may be with new “oligarchs” and criminals); corruption, the phenomenon that is central to Russia, developed in a monumental and total way at all levels of the political institutions, the establishment and the law-enforcement bodies; health-system crisis, crisis of the education system, crisis of public transport and of other social services, crises of spirituality and morality go altogether hand in hand; the militarization of economics and politics is in constant progress. This last observation applies in particular to the XXI century. There is need to point at the increasing role (importance) of the so-called “power structures”: FSB (former KGB), MVD (Ministry of Internal Affairs), and similar bodies. The war in Chechen is a terrifying piece of evidence for Russia’s neo-totalitarian reversal; massive human rights abuses and attacks are inherent part in Russia’s every day life. The army and the penal institutions are more than other institutions predisposed towards tyranny and torture (Abramkin, 1998; Christie, 2000: 79-90; Gilinskiy, 1998, Index on Censorship, 1999; Walmsley, 1996: 358-386; Walmsley, 2003). Nationalist, anti-Semitic, neo-fascist and skinhead’s groups and movements have become very important and prominent actors in social and political life; the meet no significant resistance. Attacks against mass media that belong to the political opposition developed since 1999-2000 and continue hitherto. “Spy mania” developed in the aftermath of the 1999’s.

The ever-growing economic polarization of the population – visible in the stark contrast between the the majority of the poor and the nouveau rich minority (the “New Russian”) – is undoubtedly the major source of the on-going social conflict. The differentiation between the incomes of the 10% least prosperous and the 10% most prosperous Russians increased from 1:4.5 in 1991 up to 1:15 in 1999. It is the official data, but the opinion of experts is: the real difference of the incomes mount up to 23-25 (Human Development Report in the Russian Federation, 1999: 46, 152), in Moscow up to 60.

Death rate (per 1000 population) was in 1986 - 10.4, in 2003 – 16.3. This rate was in 2003: the World – 9,0; Africa - 14; West Europe – 10. Life expectancy was in Russia in 2003: males – 59, females – 72. This index was in Western Europe (2003): males - 75, females – 82. It is a national Russian catastrophe.

Technological backwardness and the incompetence of the domestic production and service sectors have rapidly emerged as inherent problems of the the reforms. The inferiority complex of employees, their de-qualification, their marginalization and their lumpenization are to be mentioned as direct consequences.. The exclusion –society that holds for the permanent increase of excluded citizen (Kanfler, 1965; Lenoir, 1974; Paugam, 1996; Finer and Nellis, 1998; Young, 1999) are social basis for different types of deviance including crime and organized crime.

Risks in contemporary Russia

There are different risks: ecological, economic, criminal, etc. The most dangerous for people are criminal risks.

Street crime.

Many people are victims of so-could “street crime”. We present only official data. For example, the rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) of registered crime decreased in 1986-1988 (it is a time of Gorbachev’s Perestroika), increased from 817 (1987) to 1863 (1995) and after a short period cutting down on icrease in 1996-1997 increased again to 2051.4 in 1999 (1924.8 in 2003). The rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) of homicide (with attempt) decreased in 1986-1988 (to 6.3 in 1987), increased from 6.3 (1987) to 21.8 (1994) and after short time period cutting down on rate in 1995-1997 increased again to 23.2 in 2001 (22.1 in 2003). It is the third world rank in homicide after Columbia and South Africa. For comparison, the homicide rate in some other countries (average per year, 1999-2001) is as follows: Australia – 1.9; Austria – 1.2; Canada – 1.8; Denmark – 1.0; Finland – 2.9; France – 1.7; Germany - 1.1; Hungary – 2.3; Italy – 1.5; Japan – 1.0; Norway – 0.9; Poland – 2.0; Spain - 1.1; Sweden – 1.1; Switzerland – 1.1; USA – 5.6 (Barclay, Tavares, 2003: 10). The analogy between the inherent dynamic in the Russian homicide rates and rates of other crimes is easily drawn: minimum during Gorbachev’s period, increase during the period 1994-1995, transitory cutting down on rate and re-increased during the period 1999-2003.

To paint the whole picture of the Russian situation note: the real number of crime and the real crime rate, in all countries, is higher than the one that is documented in official statistical data. In Russia the official crime registration, since 1993-1994, since the period 1993_1994, coveres up the real crime rate (Gilinskiy, 2000: 146-148; Luneev, 1997: 145; and others). The data of homicide as they are produced in the medical statistics (World Health Statistics, 1996; Questions of Statistic, 2004:33) reflect better than the police data the real situation (1992 - 22.9 and 15.5; 1994 - 32.3 and 21.8; 2003 – 29.5 and 22.1).

In contemporary Russia the number of victims has reached a huge dimension.. Number of death- roll, in Russia is as follows: 1987 – 25,706 persons; 1988 – 30,403 persons; 1989 – 39,102 persons; 1990 – 41,634 persons; 1991 – 44,365; 1992 – 213,590 persons; 1993 – 75,365 persons; 1994 – 75,034 persons; 1995 – 75,510 persons; 1996 – 65,368 persons; 1997 – 65,598 persons; 1998 – 64,545 persons; 1999 - 65,060 persons; 2000 – 76,651 persons; 2001 – 78,697 persons; 2002 – 76,803 persons; 2003 – 76921 persons. Total number is 1,190,352 persons in 1987-2003. In addition, 25 thousand people are declared missing every year and are never found. In the Army, from 5 up to to 6 thousand of those sodiers who do not participate in wars die every year.In the majority of these cases violent “uncommissioned (unregulated) relationships” (“dedovshina”[1], abuse of power by the older soldiers, accidents related to military service and suicide are the direct causes of death.

Latent crime is highly developed. A National victimological survey does not exist in Russia; instead we have studies realized at the community level. For instance, our studies in St. Petersburg show: there is stable share of victims among St. Petersburg’s citizen (1999-2002: 26.5%; 27.0%; 25.9%; 26.1%). 28-36% respondents of all victims have been victims two and more times a year. As for the victims of theft, there is a higher rate: 53-56%. There is stable share of victims who do not report to police (1999-2002: 70.3%; 69.2%; 73.7%; 73.5%). Reasons for refusing to report to police are: “with the police nothing would be done” - 34-38%; “police can not do anything” – 17-19%; “do not want to have contact with the police” – 7-8%; “injury was insignificant or there was no injury” – 26-32%, etc. Police reaction to to report: “did not react at all” – 12-18%; “a long time afterward” – 5-8%; and “do not know anything about actions of police” – 11-15% (!). Police reacted immediately only for 29-38% of victims.

White-collar crime

White-collar crime includes economic crime, some types of ecological crime, malfeasances and other crimes involving official status, functions and power. Because of their latent nature such crimes are a very serious danger for society.. This observation applies in particular to corruption.

Corruption

It is “the abuse of public power for private profit” (/Joseph Senturia/ see: Wewer, 1994: 481). The UNO provides for a similar definition (Resolution 34/169 of the General Assembly UNO, 12.17.1979).

There are too many forms of corruption: bribery, favoritism, nepotism, protectionism, lobbying, illegal distribution and redistribution of public resources and funds, theft of treasury, illegal privatization, illegal financing of political structures, extortion, credit allowance favoritism (contracts), buying of votes, the famous Russian “blat” (different services for relatives, friends, acquaintances /Ledeneva, 1998/), etc.

There is corruption in all countries. It is a world-wide problem. But there is great difference regarding the various dimensions of the issue. Corruption is common practice in Russia; corruption is developed on a total scale in all public institutions including government and political establishments. The Index of Corruption Perception-2002 (from Transparency International) for Russian is 2.7; Russia occupies the 74^th place on 102 countries position listing (maximum corruption - in Bangladesh, Index - 1.2, minimum - in Finland, Index - 9.7).

Everyday the Russian and foreign Mass Media report facts of corruption and corrupt activity in Russia.. Everyday different Russian newspapers and journals are reporting who (name, position), when, how much money or “service” have been given as bribe, and yet there is lack in official reaction. Fixed prices (“tariff”) is custom in Russia. The Russian press, partly, provides for reports on this issue. The newspaper “Signal” (1996, N1) published the tariff amounts for different illegal services of GAI – State Transport Inspection; the newspaper “Vash Tain’y Sovetnik” (“Your Secret Counselor”) published the amounts of illegal tariffs for “free” training in different universities of St. Petersburg (including Law faculties of the State University and Police Academy…). The most interesting data relatated to this issues have been published in the book “Corruption and Combat Corruption” (2000: 62-63): there are fixed prices of briber for obstructing the crime investigation - $1,000-10,000; for commutation of arrest to pledge or engagement - $20,000-25,000; for reduction of penalty – $5,000-15,000; for “ignorance” of customs or infringement of customs – $10,000-20,000 or 20-25% of customs duty. Moreover data about tariffs for the highest State position ere available: the Head of Duma’s (the Russian parliament) committee - $30,000, assistant of the deputy - $4,000–5,000, a presentation of a law project - $250,000 (Sungurov, 2000: 41). Obviously, the amount of the tariffs prices increases as a function of inflation… “New newspaper” published on December 2002 (N93) data from the booklet of Duma’s deputy Professor G. Kostin. The booklet provided for the amount of the tariff being applied to the buyers of the highest State positions: Head of Department of the Supreme Court of Justice - $400,000; deputy of head of Moscow’s Arbitration Tribunal - $1.3 millions; deputy of Ministry of Power Engineering - $10 millions. The newspaper who had publish these data expected to provoke official reaction (excuse, refutation, inquiry), but – nothing! Most of the highest officials profit from inviolability de jure (deputies, judgers and other) or de facto.

There are spacious corruption networks including ministries, police, FSB (Satarov, 2002; Sungurov, 2000: 72-82). Corruption in contemporary Russia is an element of the political system, a mechanism of the political regime. Two levels of corruption are to be distinguished: “lower” (“face of face”) and “upper”, the latter covering the great corruption networks. Accordingly to the Fond INDEM - Study (Head Dr. G. Satarov, former assistant of former President Boris Eltzin) the Ministry of Internal Affairs, Federal Service of Security, State Committee of Customs Service are involved in the great corruption networks.

Due to the system of “otkat” (“recoil”, “delivery”, “return”), 3-10% (Satarov, 2002: 8) or 40-60% of the total amount of agreement are payed to officials (New Newspaper, 2003: 12). Corruption of the police, the prosecutor’s office and corruption of the judges are very dangerous types of corruption. “Corruption of judges is at the source of one of the most powerful corruption market in Russia… Corruption of judges is rooted in different corruption networks acting at different level of power” (Satarov, 2003). Arbitration courts are particularly corrupted.

I think corruption is the major Russian problem; it is impossible to resolve all the orther problems without resolving the one of corruption.

Terrorism

Terrorism is a great threat to the security of human being. The three major aspects of terrorism are: use of violence; as means to reach political (religious, ethnic, ideological)goalst; against noncombatants, civil population (see detail: Ganor, 2002).

Terrorism is a very complex phenomenon. It is a very controversial issue: is it terrorism or revolutionary violence? Are terrorists criminals or are they fighters for independence?

There is a difference between terror and terrorism. Terror is the violence of the power against the poor, dependents, “humble and injured” (F. Dostojevsky). Terrorism is the reaction of the poor, dependents against the terror of the power. Terrorism is crime, but unconventional crime. Terrorists are convinced that they are freedom and independence fighters. Terrorism, therefore, is first of all a political problem; it is an error to believe that terrorism can not be reduced to criminal justice or police issues. It is very important to understand this problem. As far as France’s policy in Algeria culminated into Algeria’s independence, France provided for an appropriated solution to the problem; the independence was rooted in a good decision-making, In contrast US – military intervention in Iraq or Russia’s war in Chechen must be thought as of not appropriated and wrong policies. Given the actual situation it is worth mentioning that the whole Russian population is hold hostage of by Russian power. The tragedy of Beslan holds for this national tragedy. .

Human trafficking in Russia

Human trafficking is a global problem (Glonti, 2004; Kangaspunta, 2003). The definition of “human trafficking” consists of three main elements: (1) recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons; (2) the threat or the use of improper means, such as force, abduction, fraud or deception; and (3) the aim, i.e. exploitation, e.g. sexual exploitation, forced labor, servitude or slavery (Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, November 2000). There are several kinds of human trafficking: trafficking of women (“white slavery”), trafficking of children (for prostitution, for pornography, for illegal adoption), slavery, trafficking of internals, etc. A particular type of trafficking consists of is migrants’ smuggling. All kinds of trafficking exist in Russia. Moreover, Russia takes the first place in the world trafficking list (Erokhina, Buryak, 2003: 36). “Considering the global inequalities in affluence, the circumstance that Africa, Asia and the CIS member States are precisely the regions where regions where the majority of trafficking victims have been recruited comes not really as a surprise.” (Kangaspunta, 2003: 91). Russia is the country with the highest number of trafficking victims (in descending order: Ukraine, Russia, Nigeria, Albania, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, China and so on) and with the highest number of offenders, who were either suspected of being involved in trafficking as criminals or who had been found guilty (in descending order: Russia, Nigeria, Ukraine, Albania, Thailand, Turkey, China, Poland and so on) (Kangaspunta, 2003: 94, 99).

This is not a surprise, because there are very many poor and unemployed people in Russia, namely women and young people. For example, full employment in the Irkutsk region (Eastern Siberia), in 2000, applied only to 65.2% of the male population and to 52.3% of the female population; at the same time 60% of population has income below living wage (Repetskaya, 2003: 31).

Pity, but official data, statistics of different forms of trafficking in Russia do not exist and I am forced to use local information and examples.

Trafficking of women

There are several types of prostitution in Russian cities: street prostitution (their average age being 16-17 years), highway prostitution (very young girls, including 12-15 years old children), railway station prostitution, hotel prostitution, club prostitution (14-17 years old children), “public house” (illegal, underground in Russia), “call services”, and other sorts (Gurvich et al, 2002: 15-17).

“White slavery” is the dominant and the most prominent figure of human trafficking. The International Migratory Organization distinguishes beween forth “waves” of trafficking: the first wave is that of white slavery from Thailand and the Philippines; second wave – from Dominican Republic and Columbia; third wave – from Ghana and Niger; and forth wave – from countries of Central and East Europe, including Russia (Stoecker, 2000: 58). According to selected data, more than 5,000 prostitutes from Russian Far East “work” in Thailand. Slavic women are “symbol of social prestige” for Asiatic businessmen from Japan, China, Thailand (Stoecker, 2000: 59). Many Russian women prostitute in Europe and USA. For example, the main topic “From Russia with sex” can be found in the special issue of the magazine “New York” (August, 10, 1998). The author reported about Russian prostitutes working in the Amsterdam “red light” district and on “Reeperbahn” of Hamburg.

The out-of-country export of prostitutes is realized by criminal organizations Criminal organizations. The destination is Europe, USA, Asia, some country of Latin America, Israel and some other countries. In this respect it is worth mentioning that Dr. Yakov Kostjukovsky (research officer at the Center of Deviantology of the Sociological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences) has interviewed representatives of the criminal organizations about them activity. This source is very relevant for the understanding of the involvement of Russian criminal organization in prostitutes and in human trafficking.

I. (Interviewer): What about organization of prostitution?

R. (Respondent): Prostitution in St. Petersburg is already industry. And it is not really a brand new staff. There are hundreds of “kontor”[2]. Oc course in Moscow it is more developed and better than here. In our city the most expensive woman are in pubs, hotels, casinos. There are “call girls”, girls in saunas, girls in “centers of leisure”. So…massage salons, make-up salons. Street girls are cheaper…

I.: And what about children’s prostitution?

R.: Of course. This is very dearly. But there are too much drunkards, which are selling their own children - for the bottle of vodka. If you mean prostitution in general, obviously, there is male prostitution and gay prostitution too. And males are higher in cost.

I.: What you can say about “business trips”?

R.: Yes, it happens. Moreover girls are not always whores. It can be the team of girls for the striptease work, or in the scope of service in general. But they are exported to - for example: Turkey and they are forced to work as whores. If they can escape it’s their only happyness. Usually their life has a very bad end.…

Trafficking of children

It is a terrible and widespread phenomenon in the world and in Russia. Children trafficking aims are prostitution (male and female), pornography and illegal adoption. Social basis for children’s prostitution consists of the following aspects: more than 2 million children are homeless people and orphanages; children of parent’s drunkard; and children gaping money for “sweet life”.

The Center of Deviantology of the Sociological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences has realized a study about the commercial aspects of sexual exploitation of children in St. Petersburg and Northwest Russia, including Vyborg, Petrozavodsk and others (see: Gurvich et al, 2002). Below some results: Main users of children’s sex are the “new Russian”, city’s “authorities” and foreign visitors, namely visitors from Finland and also from Sweden, Germany, Norway, England. Oral sex, which is the service most widely, offered by minors, costs 100-150 rubles (US$3-5), sexual intercourse costs 200-250 rubles ($7-8). The night with a client costs from 500-600 rubles to 1000 rubles (from $17-20 to $30-35). But if the child’s parents are alcoholics, then the payment is often a bottle of vodka (about $3). Boys are more expensive: 3,000 – 7,000 rubles ($100-250) for spending the evening with a client.

Child pornography is the issue we have lost recently studied; it is a highly profitable area of the commercial sex trade. Street children are the most vulnerable victims to exploitation as models in pornographic video and other materials. Those individuals who are involved in the production of pornography seek out their victims in the streets, marketplaces, and near metro and railway stations and other places of the city. After feeding them, they ask the children whether they would like to "make good money". The minors, who are in an extremely hard economic situation believe that it will be an easy way to make money, get food, clothes, or sometimes drugs, alcohol, cigarettes... Cadets of military boarding schools of St. Petersburg are often used for the shooting of homosexual porno-materials” (Gurvich et al, 2003: 27).

Forced labor or slavery

Forced labor – however strange it might be – is an issue which is highly developed at the close of the XX century and in XXI century. Of cases where men were reported to be the victims, 24% involved trafficking for forced labor and 60% of the cases including both types of exploitation – sexual and slavery; regarding trafficking women 2% of the reported cases involved trafficking for forced labor and 13% for both types (sexual and forced labor); and as for children 70% of the cases concerned trafficking for sexual exploitation, 13% forced labor and 18% involved both types of exploitation (Kangaspunta, 2003: 95).

Contemporary Russian slaves work in Caucasian region of Russia and even in central regions. Moreover Russia is “consumer” of “slaves” from the members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), especially from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Moldova, as well as from China, Vietnam, Afghanistan, North Korea, from some African and Latin-American countries. Russian and international criminal organizations provide for illegal transit of illegal immigrants. The forced labor is very hard and dangerous. For many slaves of the XXI century “life-saving” consists of suicide (Repetskaja, 2003: 34).

Trafficking of internals

This type of trafficking is the most secret, cryptic and “perspective”. Many people in our world require for the transplantation of different internals (heart, kidney, and others). Through lack of internals, “black market” develops. Sometimes, the Russian press reports about cases of illegal trafficking of internals, but trustworthy information does not exist.

Conclusion

Prevention and reduction of human trafficking is the most important world and nation’s problem.. It is a very complicated task.

First, trafficking of internals is a very cryptic illegal activity, and trustworthy data do not exist. “Even though some high-quality research exists in the area of trafficking in human beings, most of the data are based on "guesstimates", which, in many cases, are used for advocacy or fund-raising purposes” (Kangaspunkta, 2003: 84). For argument’s sake the following crimes have been registered in Russia in 1999-2000: compulsion to shut-down internals for transplantation – 2 (1999), 0 (2000); trade of minors – 28, 37; illegal adoption – 8, 2; involving in prostitution – 41, 34 (Dolgova, 2001: 534,535, 540). It is clear that these data are official data that result from the police activity (more precisely – police inert), but they do not reflect the reality.

Second, all forms of human trafficking are the result of social, economic, political, cultural processes and transformations in the era of globalization. Social-economic inequality between different countries and different groups (classes, stratums) within the States is the principal source of trafficking and other negative forms of social deviance including crime, drug abuse, prostitution, etc. It is clear: poor men, excludedpeople need money for simply to exist, some bodies need money for “the best life” (“sweet life”) and some bodies – criminals – make money by means of trafficking. Pity, but it is an unbiased process.

Third, human trafficking in the era of globalization is a relatively new problem. The development of strategy that are aimed at the prevention and the reduction of the human trafficking is one of the most important challenges of our times,

There is great need for the in-depth-study of this complex social phenomenon, need for international research networks and need for the development of Counter human trafficking strategies - worldwide..

Number of death-roll (Russia, 1987-2003)

1987	25,706
1988	30,403
1989	39,102
1990	41,634
1991	44,365
1992	213,590
1993	75,365
1994	75,034
1995	75,510
1996	65,368
1997	65,598
1998	64,545
1999	65,060
2000	76,651
2001	78,697
2002	76,803
2003	76921

Total: 1,190,352

[1] “Dedovshina” from “ded” – old man.

[2] “Kontora” is office; in this context it is the illegal agency of sex service.