Cyber Stalking: A Global
Menace in the
Information
By K. Jaishankar** and V. Uma
Sankary ***
Abstract
Cyber stalking is a new form
of computer related crime occurring in our society. Cyber stalking is when a
person is followed and pursued on line. Their privacy is invaded, their every
move watched. It is a form of harassment that can disrupt the life of the victim
and leave them feeling very afraid and threatened. Cyber
Stalking usually occurs with women, who are stalked by men, or children who are
stalked by adult predators or pedophiles.
Cyber stalkers need not have to leave their home to find, or harass their targets,
and has no fear of physical violence since they believe that they cannot be
physically touched in cyberspace. They may be on the other side of
the earth or a neighbor or even a relative. Their main targets are mostly
females, and children, who are emotionally weak or unstable. Typically, the
cyber stalker's victim is new on the web, and inexperienced with the rules of
netiquette and internet safety. It is believed that over 75% of the victims are
female, but sometimes men are also stalked. The figures are more on assumed
basis and the actual figures can really never be known since most crimes of
such natures go unreported. This theoretical analysis focuses on the typology
of cyber stalking, typology of perpetrators and victims and research in cyber
stalking.
______________________________________________________________________
Key Words: Cyber stalking; cyber crime; trends and
issues; typology; victims; stalkers
______________________________________________________________________
Introduction:
The information superhighway is undergoing
rapid growth in this new millennium. The Internet and other telecommunications
technologies are promoting advances in virtually every aspect of society and
every corner of the globe: fostering commerce, improving education and health
care, promoting participatory democracy in the developed and developing
countries, and facilitating communications among family and friends, whether
across the street or around the world. Unfortunately, many of the attributes of
this technology - low cost, ease of use, and anonymous nature, among others -
make it an attractive medium for fraudulent scams, child sexual exploitation,
and increasingly, a new concern known as "cyber stalking" (Attorney
General Report, 1999).
Cyber
stalking is the
use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk someone which may be a
computer crime or harassment. This term is used interchangeably with online harassment and online abuse. A cyber stalker does not
present a direct physical threat to a victim, but follows the victim's online
activity to gather information and make threats or other forms of verbal
intimidation. The anonymity of online interaction reduces the chance of identification
and makes cyber stalking more common than physical stalking. Although cyber
stalking might seem relatively harmless, it can cause victims psychological and
emotional harm, and it may occasionally lead to actual stalking. Cyber stalking
is becoming a common tactic in racism, and other expressions of bigotry and
hate (National centre for victims of crime, 2003).
Cyber stalkers target and
harass their victims via websites, chat rooms, discussion forums, open
publishing websites (e.g. blogs and Indymedia) and email. The availability of free email and
website space, as well as the anonymity provided by these chatrooms
and forums, has contributed to the increase of cyber stalking as a form of
harassment. Also contributing is that cyber stalking is as easy as doing a google search for someone's alias, real name, or email
address (National centre for victims of crime, 2003).
Bocjj (2002) offers the following definition for
cyber stalking:
"A group of behaviours
in which an individual, group of individuals or organisation,
uses information and communications technology to harass another individual,
group of individuals or organisation.
Such behaviours may include, but are not limited to,
the transmission of threats and false accusations, damage to data or equipment,
identity theft, data theft, computer monitoring, the solicitation of minors for
sexual purposes and any form of aggression. Harassment is defined as a course
of action that a reasonable person, in possession of the same information,
would think causes another reasonable person to suffer emotional
distress."
Typology of Cyber Stalking:
There are three primary ways in which cyber
stalking is conducted (Ogilvie, 2000)
·
Email
Stalking: Direct communication through email.
·
Internet
Stalking: Global communication through the Internet.
·
Computer
Stalking: Unauthorised control of another person’s
computer.
1. Email Stalking
While the
most common forms of stalking in the physical world involve telephoning,
sending mail, and actual surveillance (Burgess et al. 1997; Mullen et al. 1999;
Tjaden 1997), cyber stalking can take many forms.
Unsolicited email is one of the most common forms of harassment, including
hate, obscene, or threatening mail. Other forms of harassment include sending
the victim viruses or high volumes of electronic junk mail (spamming). It is
important to note here that sending viruses or telemarketing solicitations
alone do not constitute stalking. However, if these communications are
repetitively sent in a manner which is designed to intimidate (that is, similar
to the manner in which stalkers in the physical world send subscriptions to
pornographic magazines), then they may constitute “concerning behaviours” and hence be categorized as stalking (Ogilvie, 2000).
In many ways, stalking via email represents
the closest replication of traditional stalking patterns. Given that the most
common forms of stalking behavior are telephoning and sending mail, the
adoption of email by stalkers is not surprising. As a medium, email
incorporates the immediacy of a phone call and introduces the degree of
separation entailed in a letter. It might be argued that email stalking is
actually less invasive than phone calls because the victim can undermine the
interaction by deleting, without opening, any suspicious or unsolicited
messages. This argument does, however, deny the social meaning of email
communication. As with telephone stalking, email harassment constitutes an
uninvited and arguably threatening incursion into private space. As with
stalking in the physical world, email stalking can result from an attempt to initiate
a relationship, repair a relationship, or threaten and traumatize a person.
Interestingly though, those cases which have been prosecuted have tended to
fall into the latter category (Ogilvie, 2000).
2. Internet Stalking
As with
stalking in the physical world, few examples of stalking are confined to one
medium. While email stalking may be analogous to traditional stalking in some
instances, it is not restricted to this format. Stalkers can more
comprehensively use the Internet in order to slander and endanger their
victims. In such cases, the cyber stalking takes on a public, rather than a
private, dimension. What is particularly disturbing about this second form of cyber
stalking is that it appears to be the most likely to spill over into “physical
space”. In these instances, cyber stalking is accompanied by traditional
stalking behaviours such as threatening phone calls,
vandalism of property, threatening mail, and physical attacks (Laughren 2000). As noted by Gilbert (1999): In real life,
stalkers usually stalk in proximity to their victims—they want the victim to
see them and know they are there—they feed on the victim’s reaction. On the internet,
proximity takes on a new meaning (Ogilvie, 2000).
Obviously,
there are important differences between the situation of someone who is regularly
within shooting range of her or his stalker and someone who is being stalked
from two thousand miles away. While the previous examples can be viewed as offensive
and threatening, they can, nevertheless, be viewed as distinct from
“traditional” stalking in that they remain in cyber space. While emotional
distress is (appropriately) acknowledged in most criminal sanctions, it is not
considered as serious as actual physical threat. Thus, while links between
stalking, domestic violence, and feticide have been empirically demonstrated
“in real life” (Burgess et al. 1997; Kurt 1995; McFarlane et al. 1999), much cyber
stalking remains at the level of inducing emotional distress, fear, and
apprehension. However, this is not to
say that causing apprehension and fear should not be criminally sanctioned, or
that the cyber and the real are somehow inherently or intrinsically disconnected
(Ogilvie, 2000).
3. Computer Stalking
Whilst the first two categories of cyber
stalking can “spill over” into real world interactions, the “distancing”
quality of the cyber component of the interaction is, nevertheless, a defining
feature of the interaction. If there is no movement into the real world,
targets of the harassment are still able to buffer themselves from exposure to
the stalker by avoiding parts of the Internet used by the stalker. The
necessity to do this is of course an intrusion upon the rights of the
individual, but it is at least a strategy that can be employed to obtain a
degree of distance between the stalker and the victim. In the third category of
cyber stalking, this defensive strategy is undermined by the stalker. In
essence, the stalker exploits the workings of the Internet and the Windows
operating system in order to assume control over the computer of the targeted
victim (Ogilvie, 2000).
It is probably not widely recognized that
an individual “Windows based” computer connected to the Internet can be
identified, and connected to, by another computer connected to the Internet. This
“connection” is not the “link” via a third party characterizing typical
Internet interactions; rather, it is a computer-to-computer connection allowing
the interloper to exercise control over the computer of the target. At present,
a reasonably high degree of computer “savvy” is required to undertake this form
of exploitation of the Internet and the Windows operating system. However, and
inevitably, instructions on how to use the technologies in this way are
available on the Internet. It is likely that progressively easier “scripts” for
the exercise will be made freely available for anyone so inclined to download.
In practice, what this means is that individual computer users have a vastly
reduced buffer between themselves and the stalker (Ogilvie, 2000).
A cyber stalker can communicate directly
with their target as soon as the target computer connects in any way to the
Internet. The stalker can assume control of the victim’s computer and the only
defensive option for the victim is to disconnect and relinquish their current
Internet “address”. The situation is like discovering that anytime you pick up
the phone, a stalker is on-line and in control of your phone. The only way to
avoid the stalker is to disconnect the phone completely, and then reconnect
with an entirely new number. Only one specific example of this technique was
used in stalking. A woman received a message stating “I’m going to get you”,
the interloper then opened the woman’s CD-ROM drive in order to prove he had
control of her computer (Karp 2000). More recent versions of this technology claim
to enable real-time keystroke logging (the recording of every keystroke) and view
the computer desktop in real time (Spring 1999). It is not difficult to hypothesize
that such mechanisms would appear as highly desirable tools of control and
surveillance for those engaging in cyber stalking (Ogilvie, 2000).
Typology of stalkers:
Cyber stalkers can be categorized into 5
types. A multi-axial typology was developed by Mullen
et al. (1999) who assessed convicted stalkers in an Australian mental health
unit. The axes included an examination of the stalkers’ predominant motivation
and the context in which stalking occurred, information about the nature of the
prior relationship with the victim, and finally, a psychiatric diagnosis. They
classified five types of stalkers:
·
The rejected stalker has had an intimate relationship with
the victim (although occasionally the victim may be a family member or close
friend), and views the termination of the relationship as unacceptable. Their behavior
is characterized by a mixture of revenge and desire for reconciliation.
· Intimacy seekers attempt to bring to fruition a
relationship with a person who has engaged their desires, and who they may also
mistakenly perceive reciprocates that affection.
· Incompetent suitors tend to seek to develop
relationships but they fail to abide by social rules governing courtship. They
are usually intellectually limited and/or socially incompetent.
· Resentful stalkers harass their victims with the
specific intention of causing fear and apprehension out of a desire for
retribution for some actual or supposed injury or humiliation.
· Predatory stalkers who stalk for information gathering
purposes or fantasy rehearsal in preparation for a sexual attack.
The other types of stalkers are: (Bullyonline,
2002)
Stalkers motivation:
(Indianchild.com, 2000)
1) Sexual
Harassment
This should not surprise anyone,
especially women, since sexual harassment is also a very common experience offline.
The internet reflects real life and consists of real people. It's not a
separate, regulated or sanctified world. The very nature of anonymous
communications also makes it easier to be a stalker on the internet than a
stalker offline
2) Obsession for love
This could begin from an online romance,
where one person halts the romance and the rejected lover cannot accept the end
of the relationship. It could also be an online romance that moves to real
life, only to break-up once the persons really meet. Sometimes, this obsession
stalking can even start from real life and then move over to cyberspace. One of
the problems with obsession stalking is that since it often starts as real
romance, much personal information is shared between persons involved. This
makes it easy for the cyber stalker to harass their victim. Some users online
enjoy "breaking hearts" as a pastime, and so may well set up
obsessions for their own enjoyment - games that they may later regret having
played. Sometimes, an obsession can also be a fixation by a stranger on another
user for no valid reason. Since these obsession stalkers live in a dream world,
it is not always necessary for the target to have done anything to attract her
(or his) attention in the first place. Obsession stalkers are usually jealous
and possessive people. Death threats via email or through live chat messages
are a manifestation of obsession stalking.
3) Revenge and Hate
This could be an argument that has gone out
of hand, leading eventually to a hate and revenge relationship. Revenge vendettas are often the result of
something you may have said or done online which may have offended someone.
Vendettas often begin with arguments where you may have been rude to another user.
Sometimes, hate cyber stalking is for no reason at all (out of the blue)- you
will not know why you have been targeted nor what you have done, and you may
not even know who it is who is doing this to you & even the cyber stalker
does not know you. In fact you have not been individually targeted at all - you
have been chosen as a random target by someone who does not know you !! This stalker may be using the net to let out his
frustrations online.
4) Ego and Power Trips
These are harassers or stalkers online
showing off their skills to themselves and their friends. They do not have any
grudge against you - they are rather using you to 'show-off’ their power to
their friends or doing it just for fun and you have been unlucky enough to have
been chosen. Most people who receive threats online imagine their harasser to
be large and powerful. But in fact the threat may come from a child who does
not really have any means of carrying out the physical threats made.
Victims of cyber stalking:
The Internet is becoming more of an entire
family communication center, which is opening up many more victims to be
stalked. The thing to remember is that a stalker is someone that wants to be in
control. A stalker is not going to pick a victim that is equal to them. This
keeps the victim submissive. The main targets are the "new to the
Internet", females, children, emotionally unstable, etc. Someone new to
being online is pretty easy to pick out of a crowd. They don't know the chat
room lingo, by their profile info, lack of Internet knowledge, etc. Also the
type of channel or chat room you enter may give it away that you are new.
(Newbie Chats, Getting Started Tour, etc.) These are things stalkers pick up on
pretty quickly. According Aftab (2004), 83% are
female, but men are also stalked. Being dominated by men, so many more males
than females online, and their quest for female companionship may be hard
sought. This may leave them with a hurt male ego and being jilted he may want
revenge (Aftab 2004). The
Our lack of knowledge also means that the
harm suffered by victims of cyber stalking is often overlooked. Cyber stalking
can involve behaviours that range from posting
offensive messages to a victim, to physical attacks (Bocjj
and McFarlane, 2002b). Sadly, some writers have suggested that cyber stalking
is of little genuine concern and that those interested in the field are merely
promoting hysteria. Petherick (1999), for example,
seems to suggest that victims of cyber stalking suffer relatively little harm:
"The effects of [cyber] stalking upon an individual may include behavioural, psychological and social aspects. Specific
risks to the victim include a loss of personal safety, the loss of a job,
sleeplessness, and a change in work or social habits." However, Bocjj, Griffiths and McFarlane (2002) describe several
cases of cyber stalking that eventually resulted in some extremely serious
outcomes, including murder.
The Characteristics of the victims of cyber
stalking are:
¨
Male
or female depending on the age group
–
in 18
– 32 year olds, females predominate
¨
Often
involved in a real or imagined romantic or sexual relationship
¨
May be
a member of a targeted minority group or special group
–
ethnic,
racial and religious minorities
–
gays
and lesbians
–
cancer
or other patients with serious illnesses
–
adoptive
or birth parents
–
political
or special interest group
The
Research on Cyber Stalking:
The study of the demographics of stalking
perpetrators provides some interesting information. For instance, stalkers are
generally of a more mature age than other clinical and offender populations (Meloy, 1998; Harmon, Rosner &
Owens, 1995; Mullen & Pathe, 1994; Zona, Sharma & Lane, 1993). Stalkers have usually
attained a greater educational achievement than other types of offenders
(Lloyd-Goldstein, 1998; Meloy, 1996) with 42% having
finished some high school, 22% graduating high school, and 6% having graduated
college (taken from the Harmon, Rosner & Owens,
1995 study). Ethnicity in this clinical population would appear to be
predominantly non-white (52% black, 25% Hispanic, 9% unknown, and 0.4%
oriental). Lloyd Goldstein (1998) states that perhaps as many as 10 % of
stalking cases involve perpetrators who are foreign born; perhaps indicating
that immigration is a risk factor in some stalking scenarios (Meloy, 1998).
The Centre for Disease Control conducted an
extensive telephone survey, funded by the National Institute of Justice, of
8000 men and 8000 women inquiring about their experiences with stalking. Their
results indicate that approximately 8% of [US] women and 2% of [
(Petherick, 1999)
A study conducted by Aftab
(2002) found that Cyber stalking is on the rise and women, senior citizens and
children are the most likely targets. Women are also becoming a more likely cyber
stalker, as well, with the percentage of known female cyberstalkers
increasing from 25% to 40% in the last year. The other important finds of the
study of Aftab (2002) are
¨ More women are cyber stalking others than
ever before
¨ In some age groups, men are the greatest
percentage of victims
¨ More children are cyber stalking each other
¨ Certain ethnic groups are being targeted,
especially from the
¨ More people are cyber dating, and becoming
victims of cyber stalking when things don’t work out
¨ Technology, such as trojan horses, are used more often than
before...giving the cyberstalkers a remote control to
your own computer!
¨ Law enforcement is taking action more often
¨ Most states now have laws criminalizing cyber
stalking and harassment, up from only 16 states in 1998. (wiredsafety.org,
2004).
Bocjj (2003) was the first researcher
to study exclusively on the prevalence and impact of cyber stalking. In this
study, a web-based questionnaire was used to collect data from a group of
respondents who were recruited by snowball sampling via e-mail. A total of 169
respondents completed the questionnaire. The results of the study found that
approximately a third of respondents might be considered victims of cyber
stalking. Furthermore, when asked to indicate the level of distress felt as a
result of their experiences, almost a quarter of respondents chose a value of
ten on a ten-point scale. The study also suggests a number of differences
between cyber stalking and offline stalking, for instance cyber stalking tends
to take place over a shorter period of time than offline stalking and cyber
stalking victims are less likely to know the identify of their harassers. These
differences add weight to the argument that cyber stalking should be seen as a
new form of deviant behavior that can be distinguished from offline stalking.
The work concludes by emphasizing a need for further research.
As a part of a large study on sexual
victimization of college women, researchers at the
Analysis
of Incidence of cyber stalking:
Although there is no comprehensive, nationwide
data on the extent of cyber stalking in the
It has been estimated that approximately
20,000 Americans are being stalked (D’Amico, 1997), and with somewhat more
liberal estimates ranging as high as 200,000 (Jenson, 1996). Australian data
from the Bureau of Statistics suggests that in 1997 more than 165,000 women
over the age of 18 were stalked (
In the
·
One
percent of all women and 0.4 percent of all men were stalked during the
preceding 12 months.
·
Women
are far more likely to be the victims of stalking than men - nearly four out of
five stalking victims are women. Men are far more likely to be stalkers - 87
percent of the stalkers identified by victims in the survey were men.
·
Women
are twice as likely as men to be victims of stalking by strangers and eight
times as likely to be victims of stalking by intimates.
In the
Second, anecdotal evidence from law
enforcement agencies indicates that cyber stalking is a serious - and growing -
problem. At the federal level, several dozen matters have been referred
(usually by the FBI) to U.S. Attorney's Offices for possible action. A number
of these cases have been referred to state and local law enforcement agencies
because the conduct does not appear to violate federal law.
In addition, some local law enforcement
agencies are beginning to see cases of cyber stalking. For example, the Los
Angeles District Attorney's Office estimates that e-mail or other electronic
communications were a factor in approximately 20 percent of the roughly 600
cases handled by its Stalking and Threat Assessment Unit. The chief of the Sex
Crimes Unit in the Manhattan District Attorney's Office also estimates that
about 20 percent of the cases handled by the unit involve cyber stalking. The
Computer Investigations and Technology Unit of the New York City Police
Department estimates that almost 40 percent of the caseload in the unit
involves electronic threats and harassment -- and virtually all of these have
occurred in the past three or four years. Third, ISPs also are receiving a
growing number of complaints about harassing and threatening behavior online.
One major ISP receives approximately 15 complaints per month of cyber stalking,
in comparison to virtually no complaints of cyber stalking just one or two
years ago.
Cyber-stalking has attracted much concern
in the
Vicious on-line statements and rumors
may be used against the victim. Two especially nasty cases have reportedly
occurred in the
A Novell survey conducted in
In
Conclusion:
It is estimated that there are about 2,00,000 real-life stalkers in
Jurisdictions across the globe are now
beginning to take legal action against stalking behavior, recognizing it as a
public problem which merits attention. The effects of stalking upon an
individual may include behavioural, psychological and
social aspects. Specific risks to the victim include a loss of personal safety,
the loss of a job, sleeplessness, and a change in work or social habits. These
effects have the potential to produce a large drain on both criminal justice
resources and the health care system, and it is therefore in the best interests
of the authorities to take swift action when cases are presented to them. While
the behavior of stalking is not new, its recognition in legal and academic
circles is still in its infancy. Only through the continued study of the
problem will we be better equipped to deal with particular cases once they are
presented. Through the continued study and exposure of stalking (and by
extension, Cyber stalking), will investigators and clinicians be better
prepared to deal with its consequences and effects (Petherick,
1999).
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ABOUT
THE AUTHORS
**Dr. K. Jaishankar
is a Lecturer
in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice,
***Ms. V. Uma
Sankary is
presently in the final year of the Master’s programme in Criminology and Criminal
Justice Science, at the Department of Criminology
and Criminal Justice,
******